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this is the Naked Scientists.

0:50

Hello welcome to the Naked Scientists! This

0:52

is the show where we bring you

0:54

the latest breakthroughs in science, technology, and

0:56

medicine. And I'm Chris Smith. And. Coming

0:58

up, scientists unveil prehistoric cases

1:00

of down syndrome. But how

1:02

did they find them? How

1:05

Wales really produce while songs

1:07

and the famous fake fossil

1:09

that focused palaeontologists for the

1:11

best part of a century.

1:13

from Cambridge University's Institute of

1:15

Continuing Education. This is the

1:17

Naked Scientists. First

1:26

this week, prehistoric and most probably

1:28

the oldest documented cases of Down

1:30

Syndrome, which is caused by having

1:33

an extra copy of chromosome number

1:35

twenty One and an eagle rare

1:37

condition called Edward Syndrome that schools

1:39

by carrying an extra copy of

1:41

chromosome eighteen her been announced this

1:44

week, but international team of scientists

1:46

rotting in the journal Nature Communications.

1:48

They've used highly sensitive Dna techniques

1:50

to count the chromosome copy numbers

1:52

in samples collected from ancient specimens

1:55

inverse places in. Europe the oldest

1:57

goes back about five thousand years.

2:00

The results show that not only with

2:02

the same genetic conditions occurring a very

2:05

similar right back then in history but

2:07

ancient societies clearly cared for and cherished

2:09

these individuals' been rule like is at

2:11

the University of Adelaide and he's one

2:14

of the team who made the discovery.

2:16

although they didn't set out to answer

2:18

this question specifically. The. L said.

2:21

Initially we didn't have a question, we

2:23

were just exploring what is a very

2:25

very large database of eight years now

2:28

of of sample collection at the institute

2:30

I worked at. and I guess that

2:32

once we realize that we could detect

2:34

down syndrome. And. Similar things. What we

2:37

were really interested at that point was what we

2:39

can tell about. These. Individuals from

2:41

their barrios. And from their skeletons

2:43

the could inform us about more of their lives.

2:46

How does one go about detecting

2:48

something like down syndrome in. Ancient.

2:51

Dna. What? We did was

2:53

we looked at the amount of dna in

2:56

the sample that came from each of the

2:58

chromosomes and in doing so we could work

3:00

out when we observed too much coming from

3:02

one of them and that was the the

3:05

indicate or the big red flag for Down

3:07

syndrome and for Edward Syndrome. What?

3:09

Does this tell you about

3:11

the likely frequency with which

3:13

these conditions occurred historically compared

3:15

to the modern era. With.

3:18

Modern Day that one of the only

3:20

things we know that can affect the

3:22

right of cases of down syndrome and

3:24

Edward Syndrome is the age of the

3:27

mother and when we looked at how

3:29

many cases we found. We. Found

3:31

that it wasn't particularly different from

3:33

the modern right, but it's worth

3:35

noting that because these individuals unfortunately

3:37

had a short life expectancy before

3:40

modern medicine, they roll quite young

3:42

when they died, and it's difficult

3:44

to find. Smaller. And smaller skeleton

3:46

so we also don't know what we didn't find.

3:49

So. What you did you send about

3:51

how people back in the day may

3:53

be five thousand years ago regarded individuals

3:56

with things like down syndrome and how

3:58

they behave towards them as. From

4:00

what we have observed, all we can

4:02

say is that these cases the six

4:04

cases the weekend. These babies beloved. Just.

4:07

As much as any baby today, one of these

4:09

babies was buried with a very on a necklace

4:11

at another site. The baby was buried in the

4:14

home. and would have been with them

4:16

long after the burial. it in sort of

4:18

a spiritual wife and there was another case

4:20

where and the baby was buried in a

4:22

in a beautiful. Dress. In

4:24

a Christian church in in Helsinki, these these

4:26

babies were clearly cared for, unloved, and I

4:28

think that that's easy to understand because that's

4:30

exactly how it would be the day. And

4:33

in terms of the science behind this, how is

4:35

this? Helped to push the envelope. Were.

4:37

Insights Is this given? Scientists

4:39

slightly self now looking at

4:41

these sorts of questions? I.

4:44

Think the most critical thing is that it's possible

4:46

and that people want to know about it. I

4:48

think they're to really important points, but I think

4:50

the third one from a purely scientific point of

4:53

view. Is. That we're starting

4:55

to get enough ancient dna.

4:57

Samples. And individuals in the record

4:59

that we can start looking for things that

5:01

weren't common. So we know a lot about

5:03

the Black plague because so many people were

5:05

affected by it. But we don't know about

5:07

these individual. Disorders, diseases, conditions.

5:10

We don't know much about how

5:12

the community be these people either

5:14

and we really don't know. A.

5:17

Lot about how they were cared for.

5:20

And so I think this opens the door

5:22

for those conversations, which would definitely there in

5:24

archaeology. But you can't diagnose these cases from

5:26

just skeletons. You need the Dna and so

5:28

now it. It allows us to look at

5:31

more cases, more conditions, and I think that

5:33

pushes the envelope. Surmising.

5:35

To think we might be able to do

5:37

so. The Middle: A killer postmortem. five thousand

5:39

years after person died work out some of

5:41

the disease is that they at least had

5:43

this not died from. Absolutely.

5:46

And date. The amazing part for me when I think

5:48

about this is. Five. Thousand years

5:50

after the fact, we will discover these

5:52

things. And. They will have never known

5:54

and it's sort of almost time travel innocence. Them

5:58

roll it back. The

6:00

sound of whale song can be a

6:02

source of great relaxation for many, but

6:04

the way that these giants of the

6:07

deep produce their alien noises has long

6:09

been a mystery. Surprisingly, Until now,

6:11

that is and will tinkle. Has. Been

6:13

hearing how they do it. In

6:17

Nineteen Seventy, a sound very similar to

6:19

this one was recorded by and watch.

6:27

The. Revelation that Wales create such diverse and

6:29

beautiful comes proof that these joints we're

6:31

not just hunks of me to kill

6:33

and eat. And intelligent and complex

6:36

beings. but these calls on the only kind.

6:38

Of course, Wales can make a lot

6:40

of my Uncle Sam while I. Am.

6:49

A large vocal range is pretty essential

6:51

to while survival as the University of

6:53

Southern Denmark current elements explains communication. My

6:56

sound is really important for actually all

6:58

Wales and that is because if you're

7:00

imagining being out in the open ocean

7:02

and you would drop into the water,

7:04

there's no way you can communicate with

7:06

vision and sound is the only means

7:08

where you can communicate have a very

7:10

large distances and if they can find

7:13

each other they can mates either really

7:15

important are able to find each other

7:17

and they do this by using sound.

7:19

And despite anyone that's ever listened to a self

7:21

Hope cd being aware of Whale Song up until

7:24

now, we. Simply didn't know how they

7:26

did it. It's very hard to study an

7:28

organism that when it dies either things to

7:30

the bottom of the sea or exploits on

7:32

the beach of humans. we rely on our

7:34

larynx and vocal cords to wobble air in

7:37

the way we want to create noise that

7:39

about fifty million years ago the whales ancestor

7:41

transition from London to water and that brings

7:43

with it a couple of challenges. That a

7:45

huge problem because then I had to breathe

7:47

in and out huge volumes of air very

7:49

rapidly. When you have vocal folds sitting in

7:52

the way. Then. Basically disagree impedes

7:54

the ability to breathe when they go

7:56

to the surface. Sir Bobby phone and

7:58

said as it is. However,

8:00

The. Basically big use shaped cartilage sitting

8:03

in their larynx and that keeps

8:05

their larynx basically open. When.

8:07

They exhale and inhaled is huge

8:09

amount of air within seconds. So.

8:11

That allowed them to breathe. but anyone that's ever

8:14

tried to shout under with a traditional marriage will

8:16

tell you the sound doesn't really terrier cross the

8:18

hundreds of miles that Wales need to keep in

8:20

touch with one another. Where we

8:22

see now that these animals have evolved

8:25

a structure that sits on the inside

8:27

of the larynx and be best described

8:29

as sort of a cushion. It's like

8:31

a big chunk of fetch with a

8:33

muscle attached to it. And when they

8:36

rotate this, you said scarlets Against this

8:38

question. Then they're basically able to vibrate

8:40

discussion again when air and that couples

8:42

really well into the water. basically. And

8:44

that and these is very low frequency

8:47

sounds that are audible at large distances.

8:49

A fascinating set of solutions, but they

8:51

do come with limitations. Which have been

8:53

exposed by factors that millions of

8:55

years of evolution really couldn't have

8:57

foreseen this new mechanism we found

9:00

his for me is by older

9:02

baleen whales and they're made for

9:04

very low frequency calls using on

9:06

experiments and combining this is computer

9:08

simulations. Wicked estimate the range of

9:10

frequencies is animals commit but also

9:12

what's what's the range of death

9:14

and with they can make the

9:16

sense. You. Can imagine if you take

9:18

of the balloon down on the water swings

9:20

really rapidly because the air is compressing in.

9:23

The same is happening with with Aaron away

9:25

alongs if you go deeper than let's say

9:27

hundred meters, it's just not enough air for

9:29

these animals to make sound. And the outer

9:31

limits is the frequency range to. The.

9:34

Dams and uses mechanism probably from like

9:36

twenty or ten hours to buy three

9:38

on on earth and. This

9:40

frequency range and also depth range

9:42

from surfaces upon of meters is

9:44

where humans make most voting noise.

9:47

So. That means of the overlap of this

9:49

noise greatly reduces the distance and with

9:51

these animals can talk to each other.

9:54

Marine. Noise from shipping and drilling and

9:56

mining once again raise it's ugly head.

9:58

the frequency of man made. Noise drowns

10:00

out well conversation at the surface and the

10:02

pressure greater depth is too great for Wales

10:04

to produce store going to sound, but now

10:06

that we know the mechanism, is there anything

10:09

we can do to keep the whales chatting.

10:11

Know. I think the exit can do something

10:13

about this or people are aware of the

10:15

noises we make any ocean and there is

10:18

laws being made to mitigate basically to sounds

10:20

we made and I hope of mean I

10:22

think attributed to visit as a glut. This.

10:24

Is frequency ranges and difference is ready to

10:26

animals is cannot escape or noise so we

10:29

have to eat or find a way to

10:31

make noise and other frequency bands or time

10:33

a differently or to basically the maybe can

10:35

drive them innovations to change the sounds of

10:37

both make my this is vital possible to

10:39

I think now we have a a good

10:41

physiological line of evidence to show to these

10:43

animals are not just able to sing higher.

10:46

Because. This will take evolutionary time scales

10:48

and not. Humans. Times against.

10:57

Iran. Will single speaking with couldn't elements there.

10:59

and that paper just came out in the

11:01

journal Nature. The Naked

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Scientists podcast is produced in

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11:27

listening to the Naked Scientists with me? Chris

11:29

Smith still to come will hear about the

11:31

fossil forgery that folks palaeontologists for the best

11:33

part of a century. Club. Now

11:35

and bleeding disorders. As.

11:38

It turns out are actually very common.

11:40

Some of the mess act as many

11:42

as one person in every one hundred,

11:44

and in the case of conditions like

11:47

hemophilia were blood fails to close efficiently

11:49

and can lead to painful, sustained bleeds

11:51

into joints, internal organs nice in the

11:54

brain. The emphasis on treating the problem

11:56

has focused hitherto on replacing the clotting

11:58

chemical factor which is missing from the

12:01

blood and affected person. This, though often

12:03

necessitates painful daily injections. but as Christian

12:05

Cash trip at the University British Columbia

12:08

has shown this week, we might be

12:10

able to think about treating this in

12:12

a different way. Rather

12:14

than making blood clot better. Perhaps.

12:17

We can reduce the ability the blood

12:19

to break down blood clots. This is

12:22

a process is driven by an enzyme

12:24

called plasmids and this club busting process

12:26

is actually automatically activated as soon as

12:28

a blood clot starts to form. For

12:30

the purpose of this apparent a counter

12:33

intuitive measure is to prevent the crossing

12:35

system running out of control and blocking

12:37

up our blood vessels. So he's developed

12:39

a way using an M Or and

12:42

I a bit like the covert vaccine

12:44

technology to temporarily turn down the production

12:46

of the. Precursor chemicals used to

12:48

make placement in the liver. And.

12:51

The result is a rebalancing of the

12:53

clotting process during bleeding. What happens? the

12:55

normal situation. Our blood will react and

12:57

will set off a own process for

12:59

proteins accumulate than that's called the blood

13:01

clot for the com. As for some

13:04

people, they don't have the right proteins

13:06

and their blood. They might be missing

13:08

a protein and so there are able

13:10

to form a really good blood clot

13:12

and so that can lead to excessive

13:14

bleeding. And thought we wanted

13:16

to do in the study was to come

13:19

up with a way to control the proteins

13:21

in the blood to help make that blood

13:23

clot stronger and help prevent it from getting

13:25

degraded by the enzymes that are rumbling blood.

13:27

That the great blood clots. Because.

13:29

In the circulation, this is sort of

13:31

dynamic equilibrium at a see saw in

13:33

operation where the body's trying to clock

13:35

blue the same time trying to break

13:37

down o'clock and so you got the

13:39

things in in a balance in the

13:41

healthy situation. So in someone who has

13:43

a bleeding disorder lot hemophilia is the

13:45

see saw tipped to far one way

13:47

and you're saying we'll we'll can we

13:49

try and balance it back up again.

13:53

Yeah, that's exactly right. Someone with a

13:55

bleeding disorder and as many different types

13:58

like a can include us hemophiliac. Bamboo

14:00

Brands disease or many other types of

14:02

leading disorders. It hard to former a

14:04

blood clot in the wound and sometimes

14:07

and both cases the the a blood

14:09

clot as a as I very strong

14:11

and so that that balance the referring

14:13

to the balance can come into play

14:15

and a blood clot can be have

14:17

been degraded are before it's able to

14:20

to do it's job and stop the

14:22

bleed and so what we're trying to

14:24

do in this study is to create

14:26

an agent. I can help remove those

14:28

enzymes that degrade blood clots. And

14:30

so by doing that any blood clot

14:32

that the person bleeding disorders or form

14:35

even know normally I'd be unstable, we

14:37

can make it more stable. Is

14:39

effectively than taking some weight of one side

14:41

to see, so so does tip the balance

14:43

back a bit more. Yep!

14:45

That's exactly right to a tip.

14:48

The balance her away from having

14:50

a key much degradation, the blood

14:52

clot back to where it's in

14:54

balance and the person would be

14:56

able to form a a stable

14:58

but class. So what is the

15:00

element over the chemical that you've

15:02

done for. To. Try to balance

15:04

things up a bit more. The.

15:06

Chemical we've gone after the enzyme

15:08

called klansmen I've been brought in

15:10

the body is to degrade the

15:12

clot. an inner caught there's not

15:14

a protein called fibrin and so

15:16

a person does is it comes

15:18

in and and thieves vibrant and

15:20

helps dissolved a blood clot. The

15:22

wanted to come up with a way

15:24

to remove some of that plasma to

15:26

rebalance the system. Plaza in the enzyme

15:29

actually come from this protein, plasminogen and

15:31

percentage and is circulating and our bodies

15:33

all the time. But where the buck

15:35

platforming? That's where plasminogen leads to plasma

15:37

and. And. So will be

15:39

targeted as then again, and I target it

15:41

where it's made in the liver. From.

15:44

Messenger are in a so develop

15:46

an agent that would degrade that

15:49

m R and eight which than

15:51

removes plasma engine from the blood

15:53

and prevents the formation of pleasant

15:55

and prevents excessive degradation of the

15:58

blood clot. Does

16:00

the effect last fall. So if you

16:02

take an individual or or an animal

16:04

that got a bleeding problem, how long

16:06

can you controller for with this technology?

16:08

See. Them is your sexuality is

16:11

that it has a really long

16:13

acting times so we do on

16:15

one in Jackson targeting plasminogen se

16:18

decreases the line of plasminogen for

16:20

several weeks. And how

16:22

effective is it if you do

16:24

this in. The. Animal equivalent

16:27

of hemophilia, for example, Can you

16:29

do what you set out to

16:31

achieve which is rebalance the crossing

16:33

system so that you don't have

16:35

bleeding problems anymore. It's

16:37

very effective as and plasminogen the

16:40

family at a one hundred percent

16:42

we can take it down to

16:44

earth. five to ten percent and

16:46

an animal models A bleeding disorders

16:48

truly effective A Decreasing the monopolize

16:50

and so it animals that have

16:53

hemophilia, A. They. Would normally bleed

16:55

a lot more than normal animals, but

16:57

with this therapy the mana time that

16:59

they're bleeding for and the amount of

17:01

blood loss they lose is much less

17:03

fun around the agent. Is there? not

17:05

danger? If you. A D.

17:07

Power the body's ability to.

17:10

Asked his own clothes that there's a

17:12

chance you could end up cooking up

17:14

blood vessels when you don't want to.

17:16

and you increase the risk of things

17:19

like a coronary thrombosis, a heart attack

17:21

in other words, or stroke. That's

17:23

a really good. Question. For that we

17:25

look really closely at at people that

17:27

actually has deficiencies and plasminogen. It's a

17:29

rare condition, but it does occur and

17:31

was really surprising is a sense they

17:33

don't have a risk of of thrombosis,

17:35

they don't have a risk of getting

17:37

blood clots and so that tells us

17:40

as if he had this a little

17:42

bit of plasminogen and or blood, it's

17:44

enough to degrade clots. When they have

17:46

a big plot in your blood vessel,

17:48

it shouldn't be there. Christian.

17:50

Custard that he's just published. That work

17:52

in Science Translational Medicine. When

17:54

not to a scientific. Enigma the dates

17:56

back nearly one hundred years

17:58

a remarkably come. The fossil.

18:01

Of a three hundred million year

18:03

old reptile code tried Benson a

18:05

sore A center course had been

18:07

purchased and displayed by the inverse

18:09

to Padua since Nineteen Thirty One.

18:12

And. It's featured in many paleontological our

18:14

schools and journals. But. After

18:16

all this time, a study from

18:18

University College Corks Valentino Rossi has

18:20

found that the specimen. Is.

18:23

Actually, more forgery. Than. Fossil.

18:25

A She explains. To. Our own will tingle.

18:28

The fossil was supposed to be

18:30

one of the best ever found

18:33

the see that a French Alps.

18:35

And this means or foul See

18:37

that doesn't only preserve the skeleton,

18:39

but he also preserve the soft

18:41

tissues meaning the scheme, internal organs

18:43

and everything they come. To the those

18:45

dishes. And this had been

18:47

brought into a museum and university

18:49

run about nineteen thirty one. Which

18:52

puts about ninety three years that

18:54

no one had really noticed. It

18:56

was a forgery. what led you.

18:58

To. Discover it was disgusted.

19:00

With found any cycle time so we

19:02

sometimes they deserve a cycle specimens and

19:05

those are t specimens because day sometimes

19:07

never been studied with a very high

19:09

tech and it's authority and he is

19:12

because in this particular case we only

19:14

have one of the species and this

19:16

is very difficult to said you then

19:18

because all the masses the you can

19:21

use to such a disciple forces has

19:23

to be non destructive because obviously the

19:25

specimen are extremely valuable from a thing

19:28

to the point of view. So

19:30

this is why I think so

19:32

far nobody has attempted to do

19:35

I really detailed analyses because honestly

19:37

before eight years ago we couldn't

19:39

with the woods into technology available

19:41

to study forces in in on

19:44

Saturday and now with this subject

19:46

we said well if this is

19:48

really so important withdrawal be should

19:50

study it. So when you use

19:52

your new array of microscopes and ways

19:55

of looking at these fossils. When

19:57

did you didn't realize that this awful in

19:59

particular. One all it was supposed to be.

20:01

We. Basically stand and photograph especially when

20:04

we the you the lamp and you'll

20:06

be lamp can help you figure it

20:08

out whether draft system parts of the

20:10

false he did my have been retouched,

20:13

oyster have been use of clues and

20:15

political regimes for example, glue parts together

20:17

but also there are certain inorganic pittman

20:19

so manufactured pigments that also glow under

20:22

the you will we be huge a

20:24

lump. We could see that the entirety

20:26

of the foxy was glowing as I

20:28

have me be doing some. Sort of

20:31

rising on top, so. Then I decide

20:33

to sample this material and I

20:35

use can get to microscopy which

20:37

is a very powerful microscope to

20:39

see alexa level details of tissues

20:42

for example or for since and

20:44

then I need infrared spectroscopy and

20:46

messing these two techniques together was

20:48

basically the only grade. Because I

20:50

couldn't see biological structures I couldn't

20:52

see, I wanted to the signatures

20:55

typical of fossilized soft tissues. and

20:57

then I figure it out. Okay,

20:59

Thor said mythology award him seeing

21:01

and the chemistry. Is actually perfectly

21:03

matching carbon based in that piglet? So

21:05

then when she grows as okay so

21:08

easy stuff. And it was just this

21:10

whole time. Is.

21:13

It a complete for Japan. Is there

21:15

any parts about fossil a fossil? The

21:18

scheme. It's completely foreign to me that

21:20

there are parts of the faceted are

21:22

real. For example, we found that the

21:25

Seamers and Tbs and fabulous so they

21:27

basically been limbs are the specimen are

21:29

the bones of real. We also found

21:31

very tiny boonies case so those are

21:34

cool technically asked to their arms and

21:36

are very similar. To this case

21:38

of the crocodile, to their need of

21:40

bones, they're very robust. Industries. They're

21:42

very tiny bit. The reptile was also

21:44

pretty tiny. Saw: this is good because

21:47

he means that is not all the

21:49

your feet. Is extraordinary That

21:51

someone ninety odd years ago. Pot.

21:53

A fragment of a fulfillment. I'm gonna paint in

21:55

the rest of it and pass it off. As

21:58

young as a country. The she do

22:00

we have any idea why you this may have

22:02

been done. This is kind of of

22:04

a recurrent problem with Fossey's It has

22:06

been. Partially for is it or

22:09

completely. For it's is that the recent. Lack

22:11

of documentation defaults He was.

22:13

And ninety years ago, in between

22:16

they discovered the fossil in the

22:18

official description. Of before seen it was World

22:20

War Two. it was of sleep is sort of

22:22

clear. That he just of time. So

22:24

many death I'm installing. The time were

22:26

basically lost because of the war. so

22:28

we don't know. Maybe someone was trying.

22:31

To find the rest of the skeleton

22:33

and he was basically by preparing the

22:35

rock and up carving. The.

22:38

Shape of a nice as and

22:40

then using. The pain of course

22:42

didn't really help us and be

22:44

be helped this person. Convince.

22:46

People that these with a real fauci,

22:48

the system parser real. So this is

22:50

where we are at the moment. But

22:52

unfortunately we have new records

22:54

so anything is possible. From

22:57

his point onwards, it does really raise

22:59

the question and the troubling question of

23:01

is anyone's favorite fossil actually real? Who

23:03

knows. I mean, how pervasive do think

23:06

fossil forgeries in the paleontological world. Yeah.

23:08

So a fuzzy fuzzy these are

23:10

definitely a problem like I think

23:12

these now are raising voices from

23:14

Sign Peace that imposes a first

23:16

the collectors as well and museum

23:18

seeing. The you know we we actually

23:20

need to talk with government's. About

23:23

the because four Sigma he'll eat

23:25

seen most of the time as

23:27

a very rare resources for many

23:29

me since and paleontology somehow also

23:32

started the way it was people

23:34

collecting facility on the beach he's

23:36

on the mountains there was selling

23:38

these two collectors. And these.

23:40

Collector said became me be museum founders

23:43

than the with still buying specimen he

23:45

noticed all swelling good of. Course when

23:47

it's regulated by also give people

23:49

an excuse to me capacity to

23:52

make money. There are many fostered

23:54

shows in Europe, bottles in states

23:56

where there are so many sake

23:59

of the. And you

24:01

think I mean if I buy a

24:03

five you will seek final by for

24:05

my collection. Nothing's gonna happen sure but.

24:08

Unfortunately, these keep adding money to the

24:10

probe than he said. I'm a sea

24:12

salt in it. There are many. Of

24:15

us that are trying to work on this. Were first

24:17

was to protect the for clarity

24:19

it's because it's our past culturally.

24:21

For for the important so issue than be

24:23

used these way. Valentino.

24:25

Rossi and that papers just come out

24:28

in the journal Peninsula Geo Mr. Kim

24:30

Woo Boots and because he's also been

24:32

looking into the cooking of emissions submissions

24:34

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25:04

mac. Today. We've.

25:06

Got a double feature this time round,

25:08

both concerning certain emissions effect on climate

25:11

change will get three unusual one in

25:13

a moment. but the first question was

25:15

sent in by listener ranches who asked,

25:17

I've been seeing some claims that volcanoes

25:19

produce a huge amount of C O

25:21

two in relation to human related seventy

25:24

could you clarify the situation so we

25:26

have cats up the expertise of use

25:28

yells Mark Muslim. Societies.

25:30

To be measuring the amount

25:33

of C O Two and

25:35

other gases coming out of

25:37

volcanoes for decades and it

25:39

looks like that both labs

25:41

and submarine volcanoes to the

25:43

cosell volcanoes under the ocean.

25:46

they emit about zero point

25:48

one, three digits hands to

25:50

about zero point four digit

25:52

tons per year snaps. That.

25:54

Sounds a huge amounts but

25:57

if compare it with all

25:59

human. Dot sudden emissions less

26:01

about forty one billion tons or

26:03

get tons of carbon So humans

26:06

emit about a hundred to four

26:08

hundred times the man to see

26:10

a t It's coming from volcanoes.

26:12

This feels like we've put the

26:14

debate than to bed between humans

26:17

volcanoes but currently for wrong volcanoes

26:19

also spit out a few things

26:21

that stop as much of the

26:23

sunlight hitting the as as well.

26:26

We. Also know that volcanoes can

26:28

have a negative effect on

26:30

warming say Pinatubo that have

26:32

opted in Nineteen Ninety One

26:34

spewed a lot of aerosols,

26:37

main the sulfur dioxide into

26:39

the atmosphere and that. For.

26:41

One year with slated as a

26:43

bit of sunlight and cool the

26:46

planet down just for twelve month

26:48

period. However, as scientists we know

26:51

the in the nineteen eighties in

26:53

the early nineteen nineties the amount

26:55

of sulfur dioxide getting into the

26:58

atmosphere. Because of industries those aerosols

27:00

were causing a little bit of

27:03

cooling. So for us yeah true.

27:05

Global. Warming was being masked by

27:08

our position. Snap course, we've cleaned

27:10

up that air pollution because it's

27:12

so bad for human health and

27:14

a coast. What We see the

27:16

underlying trend of global warming getting

27:18

faster since then and since the

27:21

self I a so ski the

27:23

rather indelicate question coming in from

27:25

Listen to Ban he was asked

27:27

about how much greenhouse gas the

27:29

semen flatulence emit human faults are

27:31

negligible in terms of the amount

27:34

of me sane The Well produces.

27:36

What we should be worried

27:38

A's about Act Cattle which

27:40

produce methane from both ends

27:42

and I'll give you a

27:45

really big stats. We take

27:47

the weight of land mammals

27:49

on the planet. Thirty. Percent

27:51

all humans but sixty seven

27:53

percent of our weight is

27:55

as livestock and our pets

27:58

as a huge numbers. The

28:00

only three percent of the

28:02

memos on the land surface

28:04

are actually wild animals that

28:06

David Attenborough goes in films

28:08

for our enjoyment on a

28:10

Sunday night on the sofa.

28:12

so they were seeds, gnomes

28:14

of capital producing huge amounts.

28:16

Me think back at into

28:18

that when we actually producing

28:20

see huge amount of wet

28:22

voice. Foam. Around the world

28:24

that produces lots of me sane

28:26

as well to compared with this

28:28

ah I'm skinny little thoughts just

28:30

a rather than compared with the

28:32

thought some births of cattle, the

28:34

actual amount of methane produced by our

28:37

artificial wetlands which are producing vice

28:39

to feed the world said i

28:41

think so much about volcanoes or your

28:43

thoughts think about you guys Thank

28:45

you so much Aransas in Bend

28:47

for their questions are not Muslim for

28:49

the answers. Next week where answering

28:51

this question sent in by. Listener: David

28:54

I suffer from toast or comic of

28:56

fatigue and often job for the need

28:58

a body transplant. Is it possible to

29:00

keep ahead, allies and fully functioning? I'd

29:02

love to know the answer that not

29:04

really keen on being says one to

29:06

go a transplant? That's it for this

29:08

week. Do tune in on Tuesday when

29:10

subject as exercising motorists the length and

29:12

breadth of the country is going to

29:14

be our topic and that's Potholes will

29:16

hear how they happen and the new

29:18

technologies scientists are racing to develop to

29:21

try to solve the problem. Me mother,

29:23

the naked. Scientists comes to from the

29:25

University of Cambridge is institute of

29:27

continuing education is possible. Rolls Royce

29:29

on Christmas. Thinking

29:52

about your next career, move in

29:54

research and development and it's time

29:56

to make your move to the

29:58

Uk. The name. Than that investing

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the next two years. The

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nation does home to for

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