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anytime, anyplace, world

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This is one day university.

0:21

Welcome, and

0:27

we're back on the untold history of

0:29

sports in America. I'm your host,

0:31

Mike Coscarelli. Last time, we

0:33

talked about America's first black heavyweight

0:36

champion, Jack Johnson and the struggles

0:38

he endured as the first black man in the country

0:41

to achieve the accolade. Today,

0:43

it's all about the kids. We'll be talking about

0:45

how the U. S School system used sports

0:47

to turn immigrant children in the inner cities

0:50

into one percent Americans.

0:53

To explain more, here's Matt. I

1:00

have an assignment for you, and don't

1:02

worry. There will be no essay writing or group

1:05

work in this course. But but do be a favor

1:07

do this. Think

1:09

back to when you were in elementary school

1:12

and middle school and high school, and

1:14

in particular, think back to Pe.

1:17

You know, when you played basketball or dodgeball

1:20

or whatever the game of choice was that week.

1:23

What would you say was the most important lesson

1:25

that you learned in Pe? I mean, what do

1:28

you think the point of Pe was

1:30

in the first place. I'm gonna

1:32

come back to that idea in just a moment, but

1:34

in the meantime, do me a favor. Think

1:36

it over all

1:38

right, Today we explore the idea

1:41

of sport and Americanism.

1:43

We're going to focus on the turn of the twentieth

1:45

century era, sort of two decades

1:47

on either side. Let's say eighteen

1:50

eighty to nineteen twenty. Now,

1:53

Americans became sports crazy

1:56

in the nineteen twenties. We'll talk about that

1:58

very soon, Babe Ruth and Jack

2:00

Dempsey and other American sport

2:02

gods. But today I

2:04

want focus on ordinary Americans

2:07

playing sports. American sport

2:09

history is not just about the amazing

2:12

deeds of world class athletes. It's

2:14

about the games and sports that we ordinary

2:17

Americans play as well. And

2:19

this eighteen eighty to nineteen

2:21

twenty period that I want to explore today,

2:24

this is when sports became

2:26

a presence in everyday American

2:28

life. And more to my point

2:31

today, this is the era when sports

2:33

became an important part of American

2:35

identity. Now, this is when Americans

2:38

began to say we Americans

2:40

play certain sports, and when

2:42

they said, if you want to be a real

2:45

American, you need to play this

2:47

sport. This is when Americans

2:50

began to say we Americans

2:52

are better than everybody else, and the proof

2:54

can be found on the field of competition, you

2:56

know, in our athletic victories. That

3:00

last idea, that's the story of the United

3:02

States of the Olympic Games, which we'll talk about

3:04

next time. But my overall point right

3:06

now is that this is the era again, eighteen

3:09

eighty to nine. This is

3:11

one Americans began defining

3:13

themselves through sports. So

3:16

let's get to that. I've

3:19

been talking in the course about how

3:21

American sports, such as baseball

3:24

and football are to a large extent,

3:27

continuations of English

3:29

sporting practices. But

3:31

whether it was those New York Knickerbockers

3:33

shortening and shrinking the game of baseball,

3:36

or Walter Camp up in Yale

3:38

coming up with the line of scrimmage, these

3:41

English games, Americans took

3:43

them and tinkered with them, you know, they were

3:45

altered. One might say these games

3:47

were made American, but

3:50

there were many sports being played in the United

3:52

States that held onto their original

3:55

European character, and this

3:57

was very much on purpose. As

3:59

European immigrants came to the United States

4:02

in the nineteenth century, many

4:04

immigrant men they clung to

4:06

their homeland sports as an

4:08

expression of their their homeland

4:10

or ethnic identity. You know, just

4:13

as people held on to their homeland language

4:15

or religion, and and and other customs.

4:19

For example, many English

4:21

immigrants, they rejected baseball

4:23

and they clung to cricket as an

4:26

expression of their englishness. English

4:29

immigrants gathered and played cricket

4:31

to meet fellow English immigrants

4:33

and to maintain a link with their homeland.

4:36

You know, you can still see this happening through the sport

4:38

of cricket today. Is Indian

4:41

and Pakistani and Sri Lankan

4:43

and West Indian immigrants in New

4:45

York City. They have a vibrant cricket

4:48

league, just as it was almost two

4:50

hundred years ago. Cricket is a way

4:52

for immigrant men to maintain

4:54

homeland connections based on that common

4:57

sporting interest. Right

5:00

in the nineteenth century, Irish

5:02

and Scottish immigrants, well, they wouldn't

5:05

be caught dead playing cricket, you know, that was

5:07

an English sport. The English were the hated

5:09

conquerors of Ireland and Scotland.

5:12

Irish immigrants they formed clubs

5:14

and they played the Irish sport of hurling,

5:17

which is a stick and ball game

5:19

that's sort of a mix between field hockey,

5:21

lacrosse and rugby. I suppose

5:24

I don't know if you've ever seen hurling. Hurling is an awesome

5:26

sport. Scottish

5:28

immigrants they formed Caledonian

5:31

clubs. Members would come

5:33

and where their kilts and play their bagpipes,

5:36

and they would compete in traditional Scottish

5:38

games which are sometimes called Highlander

5:41

games. Wrestling,

5:44

foot races, stone

5:46

throws, oh the totally awesome

5:48

caber toss, in which competitors

5:51

see who can hurl a twenty ft long tapered

5:53

pine pole the furthest

5:56

These were some of the games that came from the Highlands

5:58

of Scotland. One

6:01

more example German immigrants.

6:03

They brought their sporting traditions with the as well,

6:05

especially something called the turn Verian.

6:09

And there were many turn Verian clubs

6:11

in the United States, and the turn

6:14

variant is a unique case. The

6:17

turn Veran was a German

6:19

club and here in the United States a German

6:22

American club, and it was many things.

6:24

It was a social, political,

6:27

and an athletic club. German

6:30

men and women who went to the turn Veran

6:33

they were known as Turners, and they

6:35

would go to the turn Verrian, maybe to purchase

6:38

German language reading material, maybe

6:40

to hear a lecture on politics, or

6:42

they came to engage in athletics.

6:46

So one of the ideas behind the turn

6:48

Verian is that it's a place to build

6:50

up German bodies, you know. So this

6:53

was about exercise and developing

6:55

physical strength. But

6:59

what made the Turners unique

7:01

and so in the context of the United States,

7:04

is that it turn Vine they engaged

7:07

in noncompetitive athletic

7:09

endeavors. The

7:11

Turners they specialized in team

7:14

acrobatics or or what today

7:16

I suppose we would call synchronized gymnastics.

7:20

Imagine dozen, sometimes

7:22

even hundreds of German Americans

7:25

engaged in these massive, synchronized

7:28

displays of of stretching

7:30

and human pyramid building. You

7:33

know. This was the turn Vine

7:36

and these athletic displays. They were something that

7:38

men and women they could do in concert

7:40

with each other. They were moments

7:42

of athleticism that linked

7:45

participants through the pursuit of

7:47

a common goal, you know, rather

7:49

than through competition against

7:51

one another. The turn Virine

7:53

is is so interesting and so unique,

7:57

especially in compared to the hyper

7:59

competitiveness that one found

8:01

in most American sports. All

8:04

right, but in all of these cases, right, English

8:07

cricketers, Irish hurlers,

8:10

Scottish Highlanders, German turners.

8:12

In all of these cases, sports

8:15

are being used as an expression

8:17

of a specific homeland or

8:19

ethnic identity. But

8:22

beginning around the eighteen eighties, more

8:25

and more Americans were becoming uneasy

8:27

with all the ethnic diversity in the

8:29

United States, and especially in

8:31

the American cities like New York

8:33

City, you know, places that were receiving hundreds

8:36

of thousands of European immigrants

8:38

every year. And

8:40

to deal with this surge in immigration,

8:43

we begin to get a large number of Americans

8:46

arguing very passionately for

8:48

the need to Americanize

8:51

these immigrants, right, these people, they

8:53

need to assimilate. It

8:55

was one of the presidents in this era, Teddy Roosevelt.

8:58

He said there is no room in

9:00

America for hyphenated

9:03

Americans, you know. He said, we don't

9:05

want Irish Americans and

9:07

German American, Scottish Americans

9:09

and so on. What we want is one

9:12

hundred percent Americans.

9:16

And look, that idea means different

9:18

things to different people, But to Teddy Roosevelt

9:20

and others, this idea of one hundred

9:23

percent Americanism, this is

9:25

the idea that real Americans

9:27

speak English, real Americans

9:29

pledge allegiance to the flag. You know, real

9:31

Americans act a certain way in

9:34

public. And

9:36

there is an idea that emerges at this time

9:39

that you can turn people into real

9:41

Americans through education,

9:44

specifically the children of the immigrants.

9:47

Right, we will turn the children of these

9:49

immigrants into real Americans

9:51

by sending them to American schools

9:54

and instructing them in American

9:56

ways. Let's have them take

9:58

American civic lessons. Let's

10:01

have them pledge allegiance to the flag

10:03

into the republic for which it's has.

10:06

But another way you can do this is through

10:09

play. You can turn immigrant

10:11

children into American children by

10:14

using sports. And

10:16

this takes us to an idea from

10:18

this era, something called the

10:20

Gospel of play. The

10:25

Gospel of Play is a philosophy

10:28

of sport that comes out

10:30

of the increasingly crowded,

10:33

polluted, immigrant filled

10:36

American cities, and

10:38

the gospel's intellectual leader

10:41

it's foundation it was a

10:43

child psychologist named Stanley

10:46

Hall. And Stanley

10:48

Hall argued that the key to a healthy

10:50

America is healthy children,

10:53

and the key to healthy children, he said,

10:55

is healthy play. It's

10:58

actually because of Stanley Hall and others that we

11:00

get the playground movement at

11:02

this time in American history. This

11:05

was the era when cities started building playgrounds

11:08

and recreation centers for for children,

11:11

so children could be active and

11:13

healthy. The playground

11:15

movement is a reaction to the

11:17

crowded, dirty streets in the American

11:20

cities at this time. It's a reaction

11:22

to children playing in raw sewage that

11:24

flowed through the streets. Or I've seen

11:26

photographs of children playing on dead horses,

11:29

you know, horses that were rotting and littering

11:31

city streets. And Stanley

11:34

Hall said, something has to be done to

11:36

give these children spaces in

11:38

which they can exercise and be healthy.

11:42

The head of the New York City school System, he

11:44

was a big believer in the Gospel of play

11:47

and a believer in the playground movement. And

11:49

I always like how he put it. He said this, the

11:53

country boy roams the hills and

11:55

has access to God's first

11:57

temples. What can

12:00

we offer to the city boy in exchange

12:02

for paradise lost? His

12:04

only ode to paradise regain

12:07

is through the gymnasium, the athletic

12:09

field, and the playground. After

12:15

the break, basketball is invented at

12:17

the y m c A to keep young Americans

12:20

occupied in the winter alright.

12:41

So on the one hand, the Gospel of play

12:44

is about physical exercise, right,

12:46

physical exercises as an antidote

12:49

to the city. But it's more

12:51

than that. It's more than just exercise and

12:53

physical fitness. Stanley

12:55

Hall and others believed that in these playgrounds,

12:59

specific games and specific

13:01

sports should be used to turn immigrant

13:03

children, those high infinated Americans

13:06

into one hundred percent Americans.

13:10

And for this task, they emphasized

13:12

the need for team sports.

13:16

Stanley Hall and others believe that

13:18

team sports provided important

13:21

modern lessons. They taught

13:23

well obviously teamwork, They

13:25

taught self sacrifice and

13:27

loyalty, and very

13:30

importantly, they taught obedience.

13:33

They taught children to follow the

13:35

rules. So this

13:37

was more than just about physical health.

13:40

This was about using sports

13:42

and games to educate

13:45

children about what it meant to be a good

13:47

American citizen. One

13:50

example, baseball. Baseball

13:52

was considered an especially good sport

13:54

to educate young Americans. And it's

13:57

because of the structure of the game. You

13:59

know, in baseball, everyone is an individual

14:02

when they come to the to the plate. So that cherished

14:04

idea of American individualism.

14:07

It's it's still at play here. But

14:09

all of the individuals are also

14:11

part of a larger team, just like

14:13

being a citizen in the American nation, and

14:16

sometimes the individual is asked to make

14:18

a sacrifice for the good of the collective.

14:22

The traits that made someone a good baseball

14:25

player, these physical educators said,

14:27

are the same traits that made someone

14:29

a good American as well. So

14:33

just as the school system use things

14:35

like the Civics class and the

14:37

Pledge of Allegiance to turn immigrant

14:39

children into law abiding, patriotic

14:42

Americans, sports

14:45

would be used for the same purpose. Playing

14:48

sports would teach these children common

14:50

values, who teach them how to work together

14:53

for common goals. And I'm

14:55

gonna say it again very importantly,

14:57

playing team sports would teach children

14:59

to follow the rules. They would

15:02

teach children the importance of following

15:04

the rules that society has laid

15:06

out before them.

15:10

This is why when we all played sports

15:12

and games at school, it was not

15:15

called sports time or playtime.

15:17

It was called physical education.

15:21

Physical education or PE

15:24

was the idea that through sports,

15:26

young people could be educated

15:28

as to what it meant to be a real American.

15:32

So think back to that question I asked you about

15:35

at the start. When you all had PE,

15:37

you were supposed to be learning what it meant

15:39

to be a good, law abiding,

15:42

team playing American citizen, something

15:44

that I think many of us missed,

15:47

or maybe we didn't. Maybe that's the point.

15:50

It's an implicit education.

15:52

We're supposed to learn those lessons without

15:55

even knowing that we're learning them.

15:59

What The organization that made it their goal

16:02

to spread this gospel of play

16:04

was the Young Men's Christian Association.

16:07

You know why m c A. We

16:10

need to talk about the y. The

16:14

y m c A was founded in England

16:16

in the eighteen fifties. It was part of that emphasis

16:19

on muscular Christianity we have talked

16:21

about, and it was quickly transplanted

16:23

and took root in the United States

16:26

right before the Civil War, and

16:28

the y m c A was created as

16:30

a response to urbanization.

16:33

That the purpose of the y m c A was

16:36

to offer spiritual guidance and

16:38

practical assistance to all

16:40

the the young men flooding the cities,

16:43

you know, a temporary room to

16:45

sleep, a shower, stuff like that.

16:48

The y m c A also offered classes

16:51

in physical culture, and in early

16:53

on these classes were about gymnastics,

16:56

sort of like the turn vine I was telling

16:58

you about. Will do stretching

17:01

and calisthenics and lit dumbbells.

17:05

But then a man named Luther Gulick,

17:07

Jr. He changed this. Luther

17:11

Gulik was the y m c a's most

17:13

influential leader and innovator,

17:16

and it was under Gulick's leadership that

17:18

the y m c A abandoned the repetitive

17:20

gymnastics drills that their members

17:23

were doing, and instead

17:25

the y m c A adopted the ideas

17:28

of Stanley Hall that they moved towards

17:30

emphasizing team sports, team

17:33

sports in the name of physical education,

17:35

team sports in the name of making good

17:38

young Americans. The

17:41

most important of all the y m c a's

17:44

was not the y in big cities like New

17:46

York or Chicago or San Francisco.

17:49

It was the y m c A in Springfield,

17:52

Massachusetts. The

17:54

y m c A had a training school in Springfield.

17:57

It was essentially a laboratory for

17:59

sports. They invented games

18:02

there. And this takes

18:04

us to the mention of a rather significant

18:07

sport, a sport that I think

18:09

needs to be understood as an expression

18:11

of the Gospel of play that we

18:14

were just talking about. In

18:18

the early winter of eight the

18:21

physical educators at the Springfield

18:23

y m c A. They were faced with a

18:25

with a problem. They're students

18:28

who were young men, late teenage,

18:30

early twenties. These young men, they

18:33

were getting bored. You know, during the

18:35

spring and the summer. In the fall, they played

18:37

outdoor sports, they played baseball and football,

18:39

and they ran track. But in the

18:41

winter, the cold winter, there was little

18:44

to do except go inside the gym

18:46

and do calisthenics, you know, stretching

18:48

exercises. And these

18:51

students, these young men, they got

18:53

restless, they got rambunctious,

18:56

and some of the teachers at the y m c A. They

18:58

were getting frustrated with them. They were complaining

19:01

about them, their their their rowdiness.

19:03

They called this group the incorrigibles.

19:07

And then one of the faculty members at a faculty

19:10

meeting, one of the faculty members at the Springfield

19:12

Why he spoke up. He said,

19:15

the trouble is not with the men, but

19:18

with the system we are using. Well,

19:21

the faculty member who spoke up was named

19:23

James nay Smith. And Luther

19:26

Goulak, who was the head of the Springfield, why

19:29

he leapt at that comment, and he

19:31

put James Naysmith in charge of the Incorrigibles.

19:33

He said, if you think you can do it, better, go

19:36

ahead. Luther Goula

19:38

gave James Naysmith two weeks two

19:41

weeks to come up with the new system to

19:43

keep the students interested, you know, to get those

19:45

incorrigibles in line. All

19:49

right. Who is James nay Smith. Nay

19:52

Smith was born in eighteen sixty

19:54

one near Ottawa, Ontario, and

19:56

then he attended McGill University

19:58

in Montreal, and he played sports

20:01

at McGill, a lot of them, lacrosse

20:03

and soccer and rugg be He

20:05

performed gymnastics.

20:08

Lacrosse was his favorite. Nay Smith

20:10

loved lacrosse. While

20:13

in college, nay Smith was twice voted

20:15

McGill's best athlete. And

20:18

while at McGill, he studied theology

20:20

and James nay Smith was interested in the

20:22

ministry. So nay

20:24

Smith is an athlete, he's

20:26

a theological student. He

20:29

is a classic example of

20:31

a muscular Christian. But

20:33

he decided to reject the ministry and

20:35

become a physical educator. And he decided

20:38

he would help develop Christian souls

20:41

through sports. So

20:43

after finishing at McGill, nay Smith

20:46

came to the y m c A in Springfield,

20:48

Massachusetts, where he studied under Luther Gulak.

20:51

He became a teacher there himself. And

20:53

now he has spoken up and he's been charged

20:55

with the task of getting the incorrigibles in

20:58

line. And so charged

21:00

with this job, Nate Smith began to

21:02

ponder a new game that could be played indoors,

21:05

you know, in the confines of the gymnasium, game

21:08

that could be played during the winner. And he needed

21:10

to give these incorrigibles

21:12

and outlet. And I

21:14

want to go into this moment in a little detail

21:16

because I think it's a fascinating

21:18

task, inventing a brand

21:21

new sport. I've tried to invent

21:23

a few sports over the years,

21:25

none of them successful. So

21:27

let's ask the question, how do you do it? Just

21:30

so you know, spoiler alert, the game Nay

21:32

Smith is going to invent is basketball.

21:35

But here's how it happened. James

21:38

Nay Smith when he was a student of sport,

21:41

so he looked at the other sports out there,

21:43

and he thought about what made them enjoyable,

21:46

and then he borrowed a little bit here and a

21:48

little bit there for his new sport. For

21:51

example, he decided his new sport

21:53

would have a ball. I mean, maybe

21:55

it seems obvious, but didn't have to have a ball. It

21:57

could have had bows and arrows and

22:00

shields, but all of the popular

22:02

team sports had a ball. So okay,

22:04

a ball, but what kind

22:06

of ball? A small ball,

22:09

a large ball. Well,

22:11

nay Smith noticed that sports with small

22:14

balls like tennis or golf,

22:16

or baseball or croquet,

22:19

these sports required other equipment

22:21

clubs, rackets, bats, mallets.

22:24

This was too complicated, n Smith said,

22:26

I want simplicity, so

22:28

the ball would be large, the primary

22:31

piece of equipment, the primary

22:33

object, and what he decided to

22:35

use was essentially a soccer ball,

22:37

a stitched leather ball with laces.

22:41

Because the game would be played indoors, nay

22:44

Smith wanted his game to be marked

22:46

by finesse and not brute strength.

22:49

You want people to get hurt on the hard floor,

22:51

So there was no goal on the ground that

22:53

you would smash through or or throw

22:56

the ball toward with great force like a

22:58

like a soccer goal. Instead,

23:00

he decided the goal would be up high, where

23:02

aim and skill and

23:05

and and touch would come into play. Nay

23:08

Smith was actually a big fan of a simple

23:11

children's game called Duck on a Rock.

23:13

I mean, what if you played that growing up where you

23:15

place an object on top of a base and

23:17

you try to knock it off that base by

23:19

lobbing rocks at it. You know it takes aim,

23:22

it takes acumen. The

23:25

lobbing of a rock at the duck

23:27

is the origin of the basketball shot.

23:31

And since the game would be played not just indoors,

23:33

but on those hard floors, tackling,

23:36

he said, tackling is out, even though nay

23:38

Smith loved rugby.

23:40

In fact, in order to avoid most contact

23:43

and collisions almost entirely, nay

23:45

Smith came up with the rule that you could not run

23:48

with the ball. The only way to move

23:50

the ball was the pass it. Dribbling

23:52

actually won't be invented in basketball for another

23:54

ten years, and this

23:56

rule very much suited Goolo's idea

23:59

about the purpose of this of the sport.

24:01

To score a basket, the ball would have

24:04

to be passed and shared. One

24:06

man cannot just take it and run with it

24:08

and do it all on his own. Team

24:10

play and getting along with others

24:12

would be one of the keys. So

24:17

I'm a big basketball fan. So here's the date.

24:20

December one, nay

24:23

Smith came to class with thirteen rules

24:26

for his brand new sport. He

24:28

tacked these thirteen rules to a bulletin

24:30

board, and he told the incorrigibles to gather

24:33

around, read them, and memorize them.

24:36

The incorrigibles learned they would be playing a sport

24:38

where they would pass around a ball and try to throw

24:40

the ball into the other team's raised goals.

24:44

And these goals were two large peach

24:46

baskets that just happened to be laying around

24:48

and that Nate Smith had a janitor mount

24:51

on both ends of the gym. It was

24:53

one of those old gyms that had a track on

24:55

the second floor. So the janitor

24:58

went up to the track and then bent

25:00

down and hung the baskets. And

25:02

they were hung at a height of ten ft.

25:05

Just by chance, Nay

25:07

Smith had not calculated that ten feet

25:09

was the ideal height. They were just put

25:11

a ten ft and this became

25:13

the standard height of a basket. I

25:17

think about this often. What if that track had been twelve

25:19

feet above the ground or fifteen

25:21

feet you know, this game we are discussing

25:24

right now would be very different. Or

25:26

what if that track was only eight and a half feet above

25:28

the ground, Well, then I

25:30

could dunk. That's what you

25:33

know. There are those who say that it's absurd that

25:35

we still use the ten foot basket.

25:38

The men who Nay Smith designed

25:40

the game for were likely all under

25:42

six ft tall, and in case you don't

25:44

know this, basketball players today

25:46

are much larger. Anyway,

25:49

there were eighteen Incorrigibles, so

25:52

Nay Smith divided them into two teams

25:54

of nine, nine against nine. This was

25:56

the early standard in basketball, but

25:59

a few years later that will be changed. It

26:01

will be five on five for men and

26:04

six on six for women. We'll

26:06

discuss women's six on six basketball

26:08

in the future lecture. In

26:10

this very first game, you got one

26:13

point every time you threw the ball into your opponent's

26:15

peach basket or basket, and

26:17

the final score of that first game was one

26:20

to nothing. I suppose today

26:22

we would call that a defensive struggle.

26:26

So maybe there was not a lot of scoring that first

26:28

game. But the Incorrigibles loved

26:30

it. They loved playing this game, and

26:32

they encouraged Nay Smith to call it nay

26:35

Smith Ball. Nate Smith

26:37

was much more modest than that. He said, no, it's

26:40

called basketball. The

26:43

name then is literal. I mean it

26:45

could have been nay Smith ball, or Nay

26:48

Smith could have used crates instead of baskets,

26:50

and it would have been crate ball. Or he could

26:52

have used the cardboard box and it would have been box

26:54

ball, but it was peach baskets,

26:57

and thus basket ball

27:01

the game of basketball. It caught on and

27:03

it spread to the other y m c a's quickly,

27:05

and by quickly, I mean within months

27:08

Nay Smith's original thirteen rules.

27:10

They were printed in the official y m

27:12

c A newsletter and sent to every

27:15

y m c A in the country. And

27:17

the reason this game became so

27:19

popular so fast is

27:21

that it fit the needs of the Gospel

27:24

of Play reformers in three

27:26

important ways. First

27:28

of all, basketball did not require

27:31

large fields like football or baseball,

27:33

so it was perfectly suited for the crowded

27:36

city. Second,

27:38

basketball was an indoor game, so it

27:40

could be played in the winter when many other activities

27:42

were out of the question. And

27:45

third, this is a big reason.

27:48

Basketball was a team sport that emphasized

27:51

sharing and camaraderie, so

27:53

it was the ideal game for

27:55

those reformers who were trying to simultaneously

27:58

exercise and educate

28:00

young Americans about teamwork, self

28:03

sacrifice, and shap Aaron. That's

28:08

all for now, next time on the Untold

28:11

History of Sports in America, presented

28:13

by One Day University. The first

28:15

modern Olympics M